Disaster management assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Disaster management assignment - Essay Example Why was there such a deficiency in the aid provided? Was there any effect on the extent of Hurricane Katrina of the human activities? Was the catastrophe prompted by the land use practices along the Gulf Coast? Can Global Warming be considered as one of the factors that impelled the storm to such appalling proportions? What effect would it have on the over all nation’s economy? These are just some of the questions that started arising in the utter confusion after the disaster. Since the time that Katrina hit, the tropical storms and hurricane activity in the Atlantic have been well above normal. The arrival of Katrina actually signified a continuation of the trend in 1995 (Hurricane Katrina: A Scientist’s Response). The development of hurricanes had an average of 7.7 hurricanes and 3.6 major hurricanes yearly between 1995 and 2005, while in the previous 25 years the average had been 5 hurricanes and 1.5 major hurricanes. (Hurricane Katrina: A Scientist’s Response 2005) New Orleans, which was directly in the eye of the hurricane, sits in the middle of the flood plain of the Mississippi river. This mighty river like most rivers of such a scale overflowed its banks inundating the surrounding area which threatened the wellbeing of the communities surrounding that area. Katrina arrived in the busiest hurricane seasons of the Atlantic Ocean by the end of which 24 tropical storms had formed. Out of these thirteen became hurricanes including seven classified as being category-3 and higher. (Hurricane Katrina: Possible Causes 2005) Hurricane Katrina was one of the most calamitous hurricanes to have ever hit the American soil. It completely devastated New Orleans, Louisiana and other communities settled on the Gulf Coast when it came ashore on August 29, 2005 (Hurricane Katrina: Possible Causes 2005). It made landfall on Louisiana after crossing South Florida and gaining strength over the Gulf of Mexico at 6:10 A.M local time. At 9:45 A.M, the Katrina centre

Elements of Moral Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Elements of Moral Philosophy - Essay Example The utilitarian primary goal is to maximize happiness. John Mill defined happiness as an existence exempt as far as possible from pain and highest possible enjoyment in both quality and quantity. In other words, if people want to embrace utilitarianism moral viewpoint, they would consider these principles to be morally binding. He claims that happiness is a foundation of morality since people desire to be happy. He also supports the claim, arguing that everything that human desires are to bring happiness. Mill argues that justice is based on utility since the rights are put in place for the human happiness. However, there is no agreement about the goals as people view happiness with considerable disagreement. People from varying cultural background may disagree more profoundly with these views. Utilitarian do not put more emphasis on the importance of motive when analyzing the moral of the action. Motives may be acceptable for an action if they deliver a positive outcome and overall best consequences. For instance, an individual may rescue people from an accident to get recognition; however, this does not take away from the good outcome. However, this theory has been criticized by arguing that happiness is not the only important thing. Critics argue that the theory does not provide enough protection for individual rights, as well as not everything cannot be measured by the same standards. Other issues have not been considered such as rights, justice, depression personal relationships, and neglecting our normal lives.

Analysis of Vietnams Energy Supply and Production

Analysis of Vietnams Energy Supply and Production Vietnams economy has expanded rapidly in recent years, with its real gross domestic product (GDP) growing 7.7% in 2004 and 8.4% in 2005. Growth is forecast at 8.0% in 2006. Vietnam has had Normal Trade Relations status with the United States since late 2001, with 2002 marking the first time Vietnam shipped more goods to the United States than to Japan. Despite rising exports, Vietnam currently runs a slight trade deficit, but is projected to begin having trade surpluses by 2007. Much of Vietnams large rural population relies heavily on non-commercial biomass energy sources such as wood, dung, and rice husks. As a result, Vietnams per capita commercial energy consumption ranks among the lowest in Asia. The countrys commercial energy consumption is predicted to rise in coming years, primarily due to increases in the use of natural gas. Vietnam claims ownership of a portion of the potentially hydrocarbon-rich Spratly Islands, as do the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia, China, and Taiwan. Vietnam, China, and the Philippines agreed in March 2005 to conduct a joint seismic survey for potential oil and natural gas reserves in a portion of the disputed area. Vietnam also claims the Paracel Islands, which China first occupied in 1974. Oil: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003, internal EIA estimates.). Enlarge: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003, internal EIA estimates.) Vietnam has 600 million barrels of proven oil reserves, according to data from Oil and Gas Journal, but that total is likely to increase as exploration continues. Crude oil production averaged 370,000 barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2005, down somewhat from the 403,000 bbl/d level achieved in 2004. Bach Ho (White Tiger), Rang Dong (Dawn), Hang Ngoc, Dai Hung (Big Bear), and Su Tu Den (Ruby) are the largest oil producing fields in the country. Although it is a significant oil producer, Vietnam remains reliant on imports of petroleum products due to a lack of refining capacity. Overall, Vietnam had net exports of 111,000 bbl/d of oil in 2005. Most of Vietnams crude oil is exported to refiners in Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. Vietnams largest oil producer is Vietsovpetro (VSP), a joint venture (JV) between PetroVietnam and Zarubezhneft of Russia. VSP operates Vietnams largest oil field, Bach Ho. Other foreign partners include ConocoPhillips, BP, Petronas, and Talisman Energy. Following the October 2003 commencement of drilling operations in the Su Tu Den (Black Lion) crude field, PetroVietnam reported increasing production volumes. PetroVietnams April 2003 discovery of an oil deposit in Dai Hung, estimated to have a capacity of 6,300 bbl/d, was expected to further increase Vietnamese production. The decline in production overall from 2004 to 2005 was primarily the result of declining production at the Bach Ho field. The planned development of several new oil fields in coming years is expected to increase Vietnamese production. A new well at Block 15-1s Su Tu Trang (White Lion) field flowed 8,682 bbl/d in early 2004 and is scheduled to be developed by 2008. In October 2004, Japanese oil companies Nippon Oil Exploration (35 percent interest), Idemitsu Kosan (35 percent), and Teikoku Oil (30 percent) announced plans to fund the development of Blocks 05.1b and 05.1c in the Nam Con Son Basin. Two months later, the Korean National Oil Corporation (KNOC), along with several Korean partners, finalized terms for the $300 million development of Block 11-2, which includes the Flying Orchid Field. PetroVietnam has a 25 percent interest in the joint venture. Exploration in Vietnam continues to yield new discoveries. In 2002, large oil and gas deposits were discovered in the Ca Ngu Vang (Golden Tuna) and Voi Trang (White Elephant) fields. SOCO Vietnam estimates that its Ca Ngu Vang well may contain up to 250 million barrels of oil. In July 2004, VSP discovered new stocks of oil in its Dragon field. Three months later, a joint venture comprised of American Technologies, Petronas, Singapore Petroleum, and PetroVietnam announced a 100-million-barrel oil discovery off Vietnams northeast coast. In September 2004, the Vietnamese government offered nine exploration blocks in the Phu Khanh basin off its southern coast. In November 2004, Japanese oil companies Nippon Oil Exploration, Idemitsu Kosan, and Teikoku Oil signed an agreement to explore in two offshore blocks southeast of Ho Chi Minh City. They plan to drill a test well in 2006 and complete exploration by 2007. In December 2004, Talisman Energy was awarded the right to conduct exploration in the Cuu Long Basin, and received additional acreage in an adjacent area in April 2005. ONGC of India was awarded drilling rights in the deepwater Block 127 in the Phu Khanh Basinoff Vietnams central coast in October 2005. ChevronTexaco also received acreage in the Phu Khanh Basin in the most recent round of awards, with an award for Block 122 in October 2005. PetroVietnams storage and transportation division, Petrolimex, recently completed a new oil storage facility in the central Khanh Hoa province. The depot is largest in the country, with a total storage capacity of 3.68 million barrels. Refining: Vietnam is in the process of building its first refinery. The $1.5 billion Dung Quat Refinery, located in Quang Ngai province, will have a crude distillation capacity of approximately 140,000 bbl/d. After several years of delays in financing the project, construction finally began in November 2005. Commercial operation of the refinery is expected to begin in early 2009. Vietnams distribution infrastructure is discontinuous, with the north and south of the country functioning largely as separate markets. Completion of the Dung Quat Refinery, located in the center of the country, should lead to greater interaction between the regions. A second refinery project is under consideration at Nghi Son, north of Hanoi in the Thanh Hoa province. The Vietnamese government has estimated the 150,000 bbl/d plant will cost $3 billion. In August 2004, Mitsubishi Corporation agreed to participate in building Nghi Son for completion in 2010. In December 2004, Vietnam contracted the International Business Company (IBC) of the British Virgin Islands to conduct a feasibility study for a third oil refinery, to be located at Vung Ro in the southern Phu Yen province. The Vietnamese government hopes to complete the refinery within 12 years. Natural Gas: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Enlarge: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Vietnam has proven gas reserves of 6.8 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), according to Oil and Gas Journal. Vietnams natural gas production and consumption have been rising rapidly since the late 1990s, with further increases expected as additional fields come onstream. Natural gas is currently produced entirely for domestic consumption. The Cuu Long basin offshore from the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam, a source of associated gas from oil production, is the largest Vietnamese natural gas production area. Only two fields in Vietnam have been developed specifically for their natural gas potential: Tien Hai, with a potential output of 1.76 million cubic feet per day (Mmcf/d); and Lan Tay/Lan Do of Nam Con Son, which began producing over 5 Mmcf/d in 2002. In the Nam Con Son Basin, a $565 million, 230-mile pipeline was completed in June 2002 connecting the Lan Tay and Lan Do fields to the mainland at Vung Tau. The Nam Con Son project consists of five subsea wells linked to a production platform and a pipeline leading to an onshore treatment plant. Gas is piped to three generating plants at the Phu My industrial complex, where electricity is provided primarily to areas surrounding Ho Chi Minh City. In December 2004, the Vietnamese government announced that output from Nam Con Son was expected to reach 88 billion cubic feet (Bcf), exceeding planned production by 90%. The project currently supplies the Phu My 1, Phu My 3, Phu My 2.1 power plants and the extended Phu My 2.1 plant. Phu My 2.2 will begin using output from the field soon thereafter. In December 2002, a consortium headed by Korea National Oil Corporation (KNOC) signed an agreement to install facilities to pump and supply 130 Mmcf/d of natural gas to Vietnam. The natural gas, located in the Rong Doi and Rong Doi Tay fields on Block 11-2 of the Nam Con Son Basin, is sold to PetroVietnam under a 23-year contract. PetroVietnam resells most this volume to Electricity of Vietnam (EVN). Production at the fields began in mid-2005. In December 2004, KNOC and PetroVietnam signed agreements to further exploit natural gas in both Blocks 11 and 12. Construction of an additional pipeline to bring ashore natural gas from block 11 began in October 2005, and is scheduled for completion in October 2006. The Su Tu Den and Rang Dong oil fields, both of which have considerable Vietnamese reserves of associated natural gas, are located near the 62-mile pipeline from the Bach Ho field. An estimated 60 Mmcf/d of gas from the fields is earmarked for consumption in power plants in southern Vietnam. Both TotalFinaElf and ChevronTexaco (originally Unocal) have found natural gas in exploratory drilling of the Malay basin. Additionally, Talisman Energy has found natural gas at the Cai Nuoc field in block 46. The discovery is close to block PM-3-CAA, which straddles the maritime border with Malaysia, and is expected to contain up to 100 Bcf of recoverable gas reserves. A contract was awarded to McDermott International in March 2006 for construction of a 200-mile pipeline, which will transport natural gas from the PM3-CAA block to Ca Mau province in southern Vietnam. It is scheduled for completion in 2007. In December 2004, PetroVietnam announced that it was reconsidering the $70 million Phu My gas pipeline project from Phu My to Nhon Trach due to increased expenses associated with land costs in compensation areas. The pipeline was initially planned to transport associated gas from the Bach Ho and Rong fields for power generation. Coal: Vietnam contains coal reserves estimated at 165 million short tons (Mmst), the majority of which is anthracite. Production has increased dramatically over the last decade, with Vietnam producing over 18 Mmst in 2003. As a result, Vietnam exported a record 7 Mmst of coal, primarily to Japan and China, in 2003. Although Vietnam has historically relied on hydropower for electricity, it has recently promoted the construction of coal-fired power plants. Vinocoal plans to build eight coal-fueled thermal power plants with a total capacity of 2,900 megawatts (MW) by 2010. Six are currently in various stages of planning and construction. In December 2004, the Vietnamese government approved Vinacoals proposal to invest in a 200-MW, coal-fired thermal power plant in the Son Dong district. The plant is scheduled to begin operation in 2007. Coal-fired power plants are expected to eventually account for 25% of Vietnams total electricity production. The Vietnamese government estimates that 10.2 Mms t of coal is needed per year to meet increasing domestic demand, projected at 20,000 MW by 2010. Vietnam continues to exploit new coal reserves within its borders. In March 2003, a significant coal bed was discovered in the Red River Delta region of northern Vietnam. Vinacoal plans to use the reserve for thermal power plants. In October 2004, Vinacoal entered talks with Chinas Fujian Province Coal Industry Corporation to jointly exploit the Bac Coc Sau mine in the Quang Ninh province. Electricity: Vietnams Electricity Generation, 1980-2003. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Enlarge: Vietnams Electricity Generation, 1980-2003. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Although Vietnams per capita electricity consumption is among the lowest in Asia, demand has risen in recent years, straining the countrys limited generating capacity. Rapid commercial sector growth, population migration to major cities, and elevated living standards have all contributed to a growing demand for electricity. In 2003, Vietnam had a total electric generating capacity of 8.8 gigawatts (GW) and generated 39.7 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity, of which 52 percent was hydropower. Electricity demand in Vietnam is forecast to grow 15 percent per year until 2010. Vietnam currently buys power from China to prevent shortages in the north, and plans to begin purchasing from Laos in 2008. The majority of thermal electricity generation in Vietnam depends on coal-fired plants, though natural gas use is expanding. EVNs Pha Lai is the largest coal-fired power project in Vietnam, with the second of two 300-MW units coming into service in 2003. In order to meet increased demand, construction or expansion is planned for 32 power stations (7,547 MW) before 2010. The state power company, Elà ©ctricità © of Vietnam (EVN), plans to commission 16 hydropower plants by 2010 and increased capacity at the Uong Bi coal-fired plant to 400 MW in 2005. Vinacoal also has plans to construct eight additional coal-fired power plants. Vietnam currently has five hydroelectric expansions underway. The countrys Son La project, which began construction in late 2005, is anticipated to have a generating capacity of 2,400 megawatts (MW) by 2012, will be the largest hydroelectric project in Vietnam when completed. In September 2004, construction began on the Ban Ve hydroelectric power plant, expected to begin operations in 2008. EVN began work on four additional hydroelectric projects in late 2004. The Dong Nai 3 and Dong Nai 4, both located in the Central Highlands region, are expected to be completed within four years and to provide approximately 520 MW of generating capacity. In December 2004, EVN began construction of the Se San 4 hydropower plant in the central highlands provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum. The plant is anticipated to have a capacity of 330 MW and to generate 1,390 million kWh per year. Vietnam also plans to build three additional plants in the region before 2010. In March 2004, EVN announced plans to spend $1.3 billion to build and refurbish power plants with a combined capacity of 1,510 MW. The projects include the combined cycle power plant Phu My 2.1, the hydroelectric facility Can Don, the Phu My 3 and Phu My 4 thermal plants, and Na Duong. Additional projects include the Song Ba Ha, Bac Binh, Se San 4, Dong Nai 3 and Dong Nai 4 hydrostations, the Quang Ninh, Ninh Binh extension, and the O Mon 600-MW thermal plant. The development of natural gas-fired plants in the Phu My complex of the Ba Ria-Vung Tau province has helped to offset Vietnams heavy reliance on hydropower, which can be vulnerable to disruption when monsoon rainfall is unusually low. In March 2003, the 720-MW Phu My 3 power plant commenced operations. The $450 million plant, owned by a consortium led by UKs BP, was Vietnams first foreign-invested, build-operate-transfer (BOT) project. EVN has contracted to purchase the output under a 20-year power purchase agreement. Mitsubishi received an award in February 2006 for the construction of a 330-MW natural gas-fired power plant in the southern Mekong delta. The plant will come online in early 2009, running initially on fuel oil, and switching to natural gas when pipeline infrastructure is completed. More foreign companies are beginning to enter the growing Vietnamese power market in the form of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects. EVN and a consortium including Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO), Sumitomo, and Elà ©ctricità © de France (EdF) began BOT construction of the Mekong Deltas 715-MW Phu My 2-2 in January 2003. The plant is fueled by gas from Nam Con Son Basin. EVN plans to develop a national electricity grid by 2020 by patching together several regional grids. The countrys distribution infrastructure is poorly maintained, but has benefited from recent improvements. A North-South power cable transmits electricity from Vietnams largest generator, the Hoa Binh hydropower plant in the North, to large population centers in the South, linking the country into one electricity grid and helping alleviate electricity shortages in Ho Chi Minh City. The $56 million project was funded by the World Bank. Vietnam is considering the construction of a 500-KV, 188-mile power line from Pleiku to Danang city at a cost of $130 million. The Vietnamese government has estimated that an additional 9,300 miles of high-voltage transmission lines and 173,600 miles of medium- and low-voltage transmission lines will be necessary to accommodate new capacity by 2010. In September 2004, EVN announced plans to invest $330 million over five years to upgrade transmission lin es surrounding Hanoi. Vietnam plans to complete its first nuclear power plant by 2020 as an alternate means on meeting demand. In December 2004, the Vietnamese Ministry of Science and Technology submitted a pre-feasibility study for the 2,000-megawatt (MW) nuclear plant to the National Assembly. Fossil Fuels Coal, Oil and Natural Gas: Where Fossil Fuels Come From: There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. All three were formed many hundreds of millions of years ago before the time of the dinosaurs hence the name fossil fuels. The age they were formed is called the Carboniferous Period. It was part of the Paleozoic Era. Carboniferous gets its name from carbon, the basic element in coal and other fossil fuels. The Carboniferous Period occurred from about 360 to 286 million years ago. At the time, the land was covered with swamps filled with huge trees, ferns and other large leafy plants, similar to the picture above. The water and seas were filled with algae the green stuff that forms on a stagnant pool of water. Algae is actually millions of very small plants. Some deposits of coal can be found during the time of the dinosaurs. For example, thin carbon layers can be found during the late Cretaceous Period (65 million years ago) the time of Tyrannosaurus Rex. But the main deposits of fossil fuels are from the Carboniferous Period. For more about the various geologic eras, go to www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html. As the trees and plants died, they sank to the bottom of the swamps of oceans. They formed layers of a spongy material called peat. Over many hundreds of years, the peat was covered by sand and clay and other minerals, which turned into a type of rock called sedimentary. More and more rock piled on top of more rock, and it weighed more and more. It began to press down on the peat. The peat was squeezed and squeezed until the water came out of it and it eventually, over millions of years, it turned into coal, oil or petroleum, and natural gas. Coal: Coal is a hard, black colored rock-like substance. It is made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of sulphur. There are three main types of coal anthracite, bituminous and lignite. Anthracite coal is the hardest and has more carbon, which gives it a higher energy content. Lignite is the softest and is low in carbon but high in hydrogen and oxygen content. Bituminous is in between. Today, the precursor to coal peat is still found in many countries and is also used as an energy source. The earliest known use of coal was in China. Coal from the Fu-shun mine in northeastern China may have been used to smelt copper as early as 3,000 years ago. The Chinese thought coal was a stone that could burn. Coal is found in many of the lower 48 states of U.S. and throughout the rest of the world. Coal is mined out of the ground using various methods. Some coal mines are dug by sinking vertical or horizontal shafts deep under ground, and coal miners travel by elevators or trains deep under ground to dig the coal. Other coal is mined in strip mines where huge steam shovels strip away the top layers above the coal. The layers are then restored after the coal is taken away. The coal is then shipped by train and boats and even in pipelines. In pipelines, the coal is ground up and mixed with water to make whats called a slurry. This is then pumped many miles through pipelines. At the other end, the coal is used to fuel power plants and other factories. Oil or Petroleum: Oil is another fossil fuel. It was also formed more than 300 million years ago. Some scientists say that tiny diatoms are the source of oil. Diatoms are sea creatures the Picture of oil formationsize of a pin head. They do one thing just like plants; they can convert sunlight directly into stored energy. Oil has been used for more than 5,000-6,000 years. The ancient Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians used crude oil and asphalt (pitch) collected from large seeps at Tuttul (modern-day Hit) on the Euphrates River. A seep is a place on the ground where the oil leaks up from below ground. The ancient Egyptians, used liquid oil as a medicine for wounds, and oil has been used in lamps to provide light. The Dead Sea, near the modern Country of Israel, used to be called Lake Asphaltites. The word asphalt was derived is from that term because of the lumps of gooey petroleum that were washed up on the lake shores from underwater seeps. In North America, Native Americans used blankets to skim oil off the surface of streams and lakes. They used oil as medicine and to make canoes water-proof. During the Revolutionary War, Native Americans taught George Washingtons troops how to treat frostbite with oil. As our country grew, the demand for oil continued to increase as a fuel for lamps. Petroleum oil began to replace whale oil in lamps because the price for whale oil was very high. During this time, most petroleum oil came from distilling coal into a liquid or by skimming it off of lakes just as the Native Americans did. Then on August 27, 1859, Edwin L. Drake (the man standing on the right in the black and white picture to the right), struck liquid oil at his well near Titusville, Pennsylvania. He found oil under ground and a way that could pump it to the surface. The well pumped the oil into barrels made out of wood. This method of drilling for oil is still being used today all over the world in areas where oil can be found below the surface. Oil and natural gas are found under ground between folds of rock and in areas of rock that are porous and contain the oils within the rock itself. The folds of rock were formed as the earth shifts and moves. Its similar to how a small, throw carpet will bunch up in places on the floor. To find oil and natural gas, companies drill through the earth to the deposits deep below the surface. The oil and natural gas are then pumped from below the ground by oil rigs (like in the picture). They then usually travel through pipelines or by ship. Oil is found in 18 of the 58 counties in California. Kern County, the County where Bakersfield is found, is one of the largest oil production places in the country. But we only get one-half of our oil from California wells. The rest comes from Alaska, and an increasing amount comes from other countries. In the entire U.S., more than 50 percent of all the oil we use comes from outside the countrymost of it from the Middle East. Oil is brought to California by large tanker ships. The petroleum or crude oil must be changed or refined into other products before it can be used. Refineries: Oil is stored in large tanks until it is sent to various places to be used. At oil refineries, crude oil is split into various types of products by heating the thick black oil. Oil is made into many different products fertilizers for farms, the clothes you wear, the toothbrush you use, the plastic bottle that holds your milk, the plastic pen that you write with. They all came from oil. There are thousands of other products that come from oil. Almost all plastic comes originally from oil. Can you think of some other things made from oil? The products include gasoline, diesel fuel, aviation or jet fuel, home heating oil, oil for ships and oil to burn in power plants to make electricity. Heres what a barrel of crude oil can make. In California, 74 percent of our oil is used for transportation cars, planes, trucks, buses and motorcycles. Well learn more about transportation energy in Chapter 18. Natural Gas: Sometime between 6,000 to 2,000 years BCE (Before the Common Era), the first discoveries of natural gas seeps were made in Iran. Many early writers described the natural petroleum seeps in the Middle East, especially in the Baku region of what is now Azerbaijan. The gas seeps, probably first ignited by lightning, provided the fuel for the eternal fires of the fire-worshiping religion of the ancient Persians. Natural gas is lighter than air. Natural gas is mostly made up of a gas called methane. Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Its chemical formula is CH4 one atom of carbon along with four atoms hydrogen. This gas is highly flammable. Natural gas is usually found near petroleum underground. It is pumped from below ground and travels in pipelines to storage areas. The next chapter looks at that pipeline system. Natural gas usually has no odor and you cant see it. Before it is sent to the pipelines and storage tanks, it is mixed with a chemical that gives a strong odor. The odor smells almost like rotten eggs. The odor makes it easy to smell if there is a leak. Energy Safety Note! If you smell that rotten egg smell in your house, tell your folks and get out of the house quickly. Dont turn on any lights or other electrical devices. A spark from a light switch can ignite the gas very easily. Go to a neighbors house and call 9-1-1 for emergency help. Saving Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels take millions of years to make. We are using up the fuels that were made more than 300 million years ago before the time of the dinosaurs. Once they are gone they are gone. So, its best to not waste fossil fuels. They are not renewable; they cant really be made again. We can save fossil fuels by conserving energy. Natural Gas Distribution System: We learned in Chapter 8 that natural gas is a fossil fuel. It is a gaseous molecule thats made up of two atoms one carbon atom combined with four hydrogen atom. Its chemical formula is CH4. The picture on the right is a model of what the molecule could look like. Dont confuse natural gas with gasoline, which we call gas for short. Like oil, natural gas is found under ground and under the ocean floor. Wells are drilled to tap into natural gas reservoirs just like drilling for oil. Once a drill has hit an area that contains natural gas, it can be brought to the surface through pipes. The natural gas has to get from the wells to us. To do that, there is a huge network of pipelines that brings natural gas from the gas fields to us. Some of these pipes are two feet wide. Natural gas is sent in larger pipelines to power plants to make electricity or to factories because they use lots of gas. Bakeries use natural gas to heat ovens to bake bread, pies, pastries and cookies. Other businesses use natural gas for heating their buildings or heating water. From larger pipelines, the gas goes through smaller and smaller pipes to your neighborhood. In businesses and in your home, the natural gas must first pass through a meter, which measures the amount of fuel going into the building. A gas company worker reads the meter and the company will charge you for the amount of natural gas you used. In some homes, natural gas is used for cooking, heating water and heating the house in a furnace. In rural areas, where there are no natural gas pipelines, propane (another form of gas thats often made when oil is refined) or bottled gas is used instead of natural gas. Propane is also called LPG, or liquefied petroleum gas, is made up of methane and a mixture with other gases like butane. Propane turns to a liquid when it is placed under slight pressure. For regular natural gas to turn into a liquid, it has to be made very, very cold. Cars and trucks can also use natural gas as a transportation fuel, but they must carry special cylinder-like tanks to hold the fuel. When natural gas is burned to make heat or burned in a cars engine, it burns very cleanly. When you combine natural gas with oxygen (the process of combustion), you produce carbon dioxide and water vapor; plus the energy thats released in heat and light. Some impurities are contained in all natural gas. These include sulphur and butane and other chemicals. When burned, those impurities can create air pollution. The amount of pollution from natural gas is less than burning a more complex fuel like gasoline. Natural gas-powered cars are more than 90 percent cleaner than a gasoline-powered car. Thats why many people feel natural gas would be a good fuel for cars because it burns cleanly. Biomass Energy: Biomass is matter usually thought of as garbage. Some of it is just stuff lying around dead trees, tree branches, yard clippings, left-over crops, wood chips (like in the picture to the right), and bark and sawdust from lumber mills. It can even include used tires and livestock manure. Your trash, paper products that cant be recycled into other paper products, and other household waste are normally sent to the dump. Your trash contains some types of biomass that can be reused. Recycling biomass for fuel and other uses cuts down on the need for landfills to hold garbage. This stuff nobody seems to want can be used to produce electricity, heat, compost material or fuels. Composting material is decayed plant or food products mixed together in a compost pile and spread to help plants grow. California produces more than 60 million bone dry tons of biomass each year. Of this total, five million bone dry tons is now burned to make electricity. This is biomass from lumber mill wastes, urban wood waste, forest and agricultural residues and other feed stocks. If all of it was used, the 60 million tons of biomass in California could make close to 2,000 megawatts of electricity for Californias growing population and economy. Thats enough energy to make electricity for about two million homes! How biomass works is very simple. The waste wood, tree branches and other scraps are gathered together in big trucks. The trucks bring the waste from factories and from farms to a biomass power plant. Here the biomass is dumped into huge hoppers. This is then fed into a furnace where it is burned. The heat is used to boil water in the boiler, and the energy in the steam is used to turn turbines and generators . Biomass can also be tapped right at the landfill with burning waster products. When garbage decomposes, it gives off methane gas. Youll remember in chapters 8 and 9 that natural gas is made up of methane. Pipelines are put into the landfills and the methane gas can be collected. It is then used in power plants to make electricity. This type of biomass is called landfill gas. A similar thing can be done at animal feed lots. In places where lots of animals are raised, the animals like cattle, cows and even chickens produce manure. When manure decomposes, it also gives off methane gas similar to garbage. This gas can be burned right at the farm to make energy to run the farm. Using biomass can help reduce global warming compared to a fossil fuel-powered plant. Plants use and store carbon dioxide (CO2) when they grow. CO2 stored in the plant is released when th Analysis of Vietnams Energy Supply and Production Analysis of Vietnams Energy Supply and Production Vietnams economy has expanded rapidly in recent years, with its real gross domestic product (GDP) growing 7.7% in 2004 and 8.4% in 2005. Growth is forecast at 8.0% in 2006. Vietnam has had Normal Trade Relations status with the United States since late 2001, with 2002 marking the first time Vietnam shipped more goods to the United States than to Japan. Despite rising exports, Vietnam currently runs a slight trade deficit, but is projected to begin having trade surpluses by 2007. Much of Vietnams large rural population relies heavily on non-commercial biomass energy sources such as wood, dung, and rice husks. As a result, Vietnams per capita commercial energy consumption ranks among the lowest in Asia. The countrys commercial energy consumption is predicted to rise in coming years, primarily due to increases in the use of natural gas. Vietnam claims ownership of a portion of the potentially hydrocarbon-rich Spratly Islands, as do the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia, China, and Taiwan. Vietnam, China, and the Philippines agreed in March 2005 to conduct a joint seismic survey for potential oil and natural gas reserves in a portion of the disputed area. Vietnam also claims the Paracel Islands, which China first occupied in 1974. Oil: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003, internal EIA estimates.). Enlarge: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003, internal EIA estimates.) Vietnam has 600 million barrels of proven oil reserves, according to data from Oil and Gas Journal, but that total is likely to increase as exploration continues. Crude oil production averaged 370,000 barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2005, down somewhat from the 403,000 bbl/d level achieved in 2004. Bach Ho (White Tiger), Rang Dong (Dawn), Hang Ngoc, Dai Hung (Big Bear), and Su Tu Den (Ruby) are the largest oil producing fields in the country. Although it is a significant oil producer, Vietnam remains reliant on imports of petroleum products due to a lack of refining capacity. Overall, Vietnam had net exports of 111,000 bbl/d of oil in 2005. Most of Vietnams crude oil is exported to refiners in Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. Vietnams largest oil producer is Vietsovpetro (VSP), a joint venture (JV) between PetroVietnam and Zarubezhneft of Russia. VSP operates Vietnams largest oil field, Bach Ho. Other foreign partners include ConocoPhillips, BP, Petronas, and Talisman Energy. Following the October 2003 commencement of drilling operations in the Su Tu Den (Black Lion) crude field, PetroVietnam reported increasing production volumes. PetroVietnams April 2003 discovery of an oil deposit in Dai Hung, estimated to have a capacity of 6,300 bbl/d, was expected to further increase Vietnamese production. The decline in production overall from 2004 to 2005 was primarily the result of declining production at the Bach Ho field. The planned development of several new oil fields in coming years is expected to increase Vietnamese production. A new well at Block 15-1s Su Tu Trang (White Lion) field flowed 8,682 bbl/d in early 2004 and is scheduled to be developed by 2008. In October 2004, Japanese oil companies Nippon Oil Exploration (35 percent interest), Idemitsu Kosan (35 percent), and Teikoku Oil (30 percent) announced plans to fund the development of Blocks 05.1b and 05.1c in the Nam Con Son Basin. Two months later, the Korean National Oil Corporation (KNOC), along with several Korean partners, finalized terms for the $300 million development of Block 11-2, which includes the Flying Orchid Field. PetroVietnam has a 25 percent interest in the joint venture. Exploration in Vietnam continues to yield new discoveries. In 2002, large oil and gas deposits were discovered in the Ca Ngu Vang (Golden Tuna) and Voi Trang (White Elephant) fields. SOCO Vietnam estimates that its Ca Ngu Vang well may contain up to 250 million barrels of oil. In July 2004, VSP discovered new stocks of oil in its Dragon field. Three months later, a joint venture comprised of American Technologies, Petronas, Singapore Petroleum, and PetroVietnam announced a 100-million-barrel oil discovery off Vietnams northeast coast. In September 2004, the Vietnamese government offered nine exploration blocks in the Phu Khanh basin off its southern coast. In November 2004, Japanese oil companies Nippon Oil Exploration, Idemitsu Kosan, and Teikoku Oil signed an agreement to explore in two offshore blocks southeast of Ho Chi Minh City. They plan to drill a test well in 2006 and complete exploration by 2007. In December 2004, Talisman Energy was awarded the right to conduct exploration in the Cuu Long Basin, and received additional acreage in an adjacent area in April 2005. ONGC of India was awarded drilling rights in the deepwater Block 127 in the Phu Khanh Basinoff Vietnams central coast in October 2005. ChevronTexaco also received acreage in the Phu Khanh Basin in the most recent round of awards, with an award for Block 122 in October 2005. PetroVietnams storage and transportation division, Petrolimex, recently completed a new oil storage facility in the central Khanh Hoa province. The depot is largest in the country, with a total storage capacity of 3.68 million barrels. Refining: Vietnam is in the process of building its first refinery. The $1.5 billion Dung Quat Refinery, located in Quang Ngai province, will have a crude distillation capacity of approximately 140,000 bbl/d. After several years of delays in financing the project, construction finally began in November 2005. Commercial operation of the refinery is expected to begin in early 2009. Vietnams distribution infrastructure is discontinuous, with the north and south of the country functioning largely as separate markets. Completion of the Dung Quat Refinery, located in the center of the country, should lead to greater interaction between the regions. A second refinery project is under consideration at Nghi Son, north of Hanoi in the Thanh Hoa province. The Vietnamese government has estimated the 150,000 bbl/d plant will cost $3 billion. In August 2004, Mitsubishi Corporation agreed to participate in building Nghi Son for completion in 2010. In December 2004, Vietnam contracted the International Business Company (IBC) of the British Virgin Islands to conduct a feasibility study for a third oil refinery, to be located at Vung Ro in the southern Phu Yen province. The Vietnamese government hopes to complete the refinery within 12 years. Natural Gas: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Enlarge: Vietnams Oil Production and Consumption, 1980-2005. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Vietnam has proven gas reserves of 6.8 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), according to Oil and Gas Journal. Vietnams natural gas production and consumption have been rising rapidly since the late 1990s, with further increases expected as additional fields come onstream. Natural gas is currently produced entirely for domestic consumption. The Cuu Long basin offshore from the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam, a source of associated gas from oil production, is the largest Vietnamese natural gas production area. Only two fields in Vietnam have been developed specifically for their natural gas potential: Tien Hai, with a potential output of 1.76 million cubic feet per day (Mmcf/d); and Lan Tay/Lan Do of Nam Con Son, which began producing over 5 Mmcf/d in 2002. In the Nam Con Son Basin, a $565 million, 230-mile pipeline was completed in June 2002 connecting the Lan Tay and Lan Do fields to the mainland at Vung Tau. The Nam Con Son project consists of five subsea wells linked to a production platform and a pipeline leading to an onshore treatment plant. Gas is piped to three generating plants at the Phu My industrial complex, where electricity is provided primarily to areas surrounding Ho Chi Minh City. In December 2004, the Vietnamese government announced that output from Nam Con Son was expected to reach 88 billion cubic feet (Bcf), exceeding planned production by 90%. The project currently supplies the Phu My 1, Phu My 3, Phu My 2.1 power plants and the extended Phu My 2.1 plant. Phu My 2.2 will begin using output from the field soon thereafter. In December 2002, a consortium headed by Korea National Oil Corporation (KNOC) signed an agreement to install facilities to pump and supply 130 Mmcf/d of natural gas to Vietnam. The natural gas, located in the Rong Doi and Rong Doi Tay fields on Block 11-2 of the Nam Con Son Basin, is sold to PetroVietnam under a 23-year contract. PetroVietnam resells most this volume to Electricity of Vietnam (EVN). Production at the fields began in mid-2005. In December 2004, KNOC and PetroVietnam signed agreements to further exploit natural gas in both Blocks 11 and 12. Construction of an additional pipeline to bring ashore natural gas from block 11 began in October 2005, and is scheduled for completion in October 2006. The Su Tu Den and Rang Dong oil fields, both of which have considerable Vietnamese reserves of associated natural gas, are located near the 62-mile pipeline from the Bach Ho field. An estimated 60 Mmcf/d of gas from the fields is earmarked for consumption in power plants in southern Vietnam. Both TotalFinaElf and ChevronTexaco (originally Unocal) have found natural gas in exploratory drilling of the Malay basin. Additionally, Talisman Energy has found natural gas at the Cai Nuoc field in block 46. The discovery is close to block PM-3-CAA, which straddles the maritime border with Malaysia, and is expected to contain up to 100 Bcf of recoverable gas reserves. A contract was awarded to McDermott International in March 2006 for construction of a 200-mile pipeline, which will transport natural gas from the PM3-CAA block to Ca Mau province in southern Vietnam. It is scheduled for completion in 2007. In December 2004, PetroVietnam announced that it was reconsidering the $70 million Phu My gas pipeline project from Phu My to Nhon Trach due to increased expenses associated with land costs in compensation areas. The pipeline was initially planned to transport associated gas from the Bach Ho and Rong fields for power generation. Coal: Vietnam contains coal reserves estimated at 165 million short tons (Mmst), the majority of which is anthracite. Production has increased dramatically over the last decade, with Vietnam producing over 18 Mmst in 2003. As a result, Vietnam exported a record 7 Mmst of coal, primarily to Japan and China, in 2003. Although Vietnam has historically relied on hydropower for electricity, it has recently promoted the construction of coal-fired power plants. Vinocoal plans to build eight coal-fueled thermal power plants with a total capacity of 2,900 megawatts (MW) by 2010. Six are currently in various stages of planning and construction. In December 2004, the Vietnamese government approved Vinacoals proposal to invest in a 200-MW, coal-fired thermal power plant in the Son Dong district. The plant is scheduled to begin operation in 2007. Coal-fired power plants are expected to eventually account for 25% of Vietnams total electricity production. The Vietnamese government estimates that 10.2 Mms t of coal is needed per year to meet increasing domestic demand, projected at 20,000 MW by 2010. Vietnam continues to exploit new coal reserves within its borders. In March 2003, a significant coal bed was discovered in the Red River Delta region of northern Vietnam. Vinacoal plans to use the reserve for thermal power plants. In October 2004, Vinacoal entered talks with Chinas Fujian Province Coal Industry Corporation to jointly exploit the Bac Coc Sau mine in the Quang Ninh province. Electricity: Vietnams Electricity Generation, 1980-2003. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Enlarge: Vietnams Electricity Generation, 1980-2003. (Source: EIA, International Energy Annual 2003.). Although Vietnams per capita electricity consumption is among the lowest in Asia, demand has risen in recent years, straining the countrys limited generating capacity. Rapid commercial sector growth, population migration to major cities, and elevated living standards have all contributed to a growing demand for electricity. In 2003, Vietnam had a total electric generating capacity of 8.8 gigawatts (GW) and generated 39.7 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity, of which 52 percent was hydropower. Electricity demand in Vietnam is forecast to grow 15 percent per year until 2010. Vietnam currently buys power from China to prevent shortages in the north, and plans to begin purchasing from Laos in 2008. The majority of thermal electricity generation in Vietnam depends on coal-fired plants, though natural gas use is expanding. EVNs Pha Lai is the largest coal-fired power project in Vietnam, with the second of two 300-MW units coming into service in 2003. In order to meet increased demand, construction or expansion is planned for 32 power stations (7,547 MW) before 2010. The state power company, Elà ©ctricità © of Vietnam (EVN), plans to commission 16 hydropower plants by 2010 and increased capacity at the Uong Bi coal-fired plant to 400 MW in 2005. Vinacoal also has plans to construct eight additional coal-fired power plants. Vietnam currently has five hydroelectric expansions underway. The countrys Son La project, which began construction in late 2005, is anticipated to have a generating capacity of 2,400 megawatts (MW) by 2012, will be the largest hydroelectric project in Vietnam when completed. In September 2004, construction began on the Ban Ve hydroelectric power plant, expected to begin operations in 2008. EVN began work on four additional hydroelectric projects in late 2004. The Dong Nai 3 and Dong Nai 4, both located in the Central Highlands region, are expected to be completed within four years and to provide approximately 520 MW of generating capacity. In December 2004, EVN began construction of the Se San 4 hydropower plant in the central highlands provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum. The plant is anticipated to have a capacity of 330 MW and to generate 1,390 million kWh per year. Vietnam also plans to build three additional plants in the region before 2010. In March 2004, EVN announced plans to spend $1.3 billion to build and refurbish power plants with a combined capacity of 1,510 MW. The projects include the combined cycle power plant Phu My 2.1, the hydroelectric facility Can Don, the Phu My 3 and Phu My 4 thermal plants, and Na Duong. Additional projects include the Song Ba Ha, Bac Binh, Se San 4, Dong Nai 3 and Dong Nai 4 hydrostations, the Quang Ninh, Ninh Binh extension, and the O Mon 600-MW thermal plant. The development of natural gas-fired plants in the Phu My complex of the Ba Ria-Vung Tau province has helped to offset Vietnams heavy reliance on hydropower, which can be vulnerable to disruption when monsoon rainfall is unusually low. In March 2003, the 720-MW Phu My 3 power plant commenced operations. The $450 million plant, owned by a consortium led by UKs BP, was Vietnams first foreign-invested, build-operate-transfer (BOT) project. EVN has contracted to purchase the output under a 20-year power purchase agreement. Mitsubishi received an award in February 2006 for the construction of a 330-MW natural gas-fired power plant in the southern Mekong delta. The plant will come online in early 2009, running initially on fuel oil, and switching to natural gas when pipeline infrastructure is completed. More foreign companies are beginning to enter the growing Vietnamese power market in the form of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects. EVN and a consortium including Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO), Sumitomo, and Elà ©ctricità © de France (EdF) began BOT construction of the Mekong Deltas 715-MW Phu My 2-2 in January 2003. The plant is fueled by gas from Nam Con Son Basin. EVN plans to develop a national electricity grid by 2020 by patching together several regional grids. The countrys distribution infrastructure is poorly maintained, but has benefited from recent improvements. A North-South power cable transmits electricity from Vietnams largest generator, the Hoa Binh hydropower plant in the North, to large population centers in the South, linking the country into one electricity grid and helping alleviate electricity shortages in Ho Chi Minh City. The $56 million project was funded by the World Bank. Vietnam is considering the construction of a 500-KV, 188-mile power line from Pleiku to Danang city at a cost of $130 million. The Vietnamese government has estimated that an additional 9,300 miles of high-voltage transmission lines and 173,600 miles of medium- and low-voltage transmission lines will be necessary to accommodate new capacity by 2010. In September 2004, EVN announced plans to invest $330 million over five years to upgrade transmission lin es surrounding Hanoi. Vietnam plans to complete its first nuclear power plant by 2020 as an alternate means on meeting demand. In December 2004, the Vietnamese Ministry of Science and Technology submitted a pre-feasibility study for the 2,000-megawatt (MW) nuclear plant to the National Assembly. Fossil Fuels Coal, Oil and Natural Gas: Where Fossil Fuels Come From: There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. All three were formed many hundreds of millions of years ago before the time of the dinosaurs hence the name fossil fuels. The age they were formed is called the Carboniferous Period. It was part of the Paleozoic Era. Carboniferous gets its name from carbon, the basic element in coal and other fossil fuels. The Carboniferous Period occurred from about 360 to 286 million years ago. At the time, the land was covered with swamps filled with huge trees, ferns and other large leafy plants, similar to the picture above. The water and seas were filled with algae the green stuff that forms on a stagnant pool of water. Algae is actually millions of very small plants. Some deposits of coal can be found during the time of the dinosaurs. For example, thin carbon layers can be found during the late Cretaceous Period (65 million years ago) the time of Tyrannosaurus Rex. But the main deposits of fossil fuels are from the Carboniferous Period. For more about the various geologic eras, go to www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html. As the trees and plants died, they sank to the bottom of the swamps of oceans. They formed layers of a spongy material called peat. Over many hundreds of years, the peat was covered by sand and clay and other minerals, which turned into a type of rock called sedimentary. More and more rock piled on top of more rock, and it weighed more and more. It began to press down on the peat. The peat was squeezed and squeezed until the water came out of it and it eventually, over millions of years, it turned into coal, oil or petroleum, and natural gas. Coal: Coal is a hard, black colored rock-like substance. It is made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of sulphur. There are three main types of coal anthracite, bituminous and lignite. Anthracite coal is the hardest and has more carbon, which gives it a higher energy content. Lignite is the softest and is low in carbon but high in hydrogen and oxygen content. Bituminous is in between. Today, the precursor to coal peat is still found in many countries and is also used as an energy source. The earliest known use of coal was in China. Coal from the Fu-shun mine in northeastern China may have been used to smelt copper as early as 3,000 years ago. The Chinese thought coal was a stone that could burn. Coal is found in many of the lower 48 states of U.S. and throughout the rest of the world. Coal is mined out of the ground using various methods. Some coal mines are dug by sinking vertical or horizontal shafts deep under ground, and coal miners travel by elevators or trains deep under ground to dig the coal. Other coal is mined in strip mines where huge steam shovels strip away the top layers above the coal. The layers are then restored after the coal is taken away. The coal is then shipped by train and boats and even in pipelines. In pipelines, the coal is ground up and mixed with water to make whats called a slurry. This is then pumped many miles through pipelines. At the other end, the coal is used to fuel power plants and other factories. Oil or Petroleum: Oil is another fossil fuel. It was also formed more than 300 million years ago. Some scientists say that tiny diatoms are the source of oil. Diatoms are sea creatures the Picture of oil formationsize of a pin head. They do one thing just like plants; they can convert sunlight directly into stored energy. Oil has been used for more than 5,000-6,000 years. The ancient Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians used crude oil and asphalt (pitch) collected from large seeps at Tuttul (modern-day Hit) on the Euphrates River. A seep is a place on the ground where the oil leaks up from below ground. The ancient Egyptians, used liquid oil as a medicine for wounds, and oil has been used in lamps to provide light. The Dead Sea, near the modern Country of Israel, used to be called Lake Asphaltites. The word asphalt was derived is from that term because of the lumps of gooey petroleum that were washed up on the lake shores from underwater seeps. In North America, Native Americans used blankets to skim oil off the surface of streams and lakes. They used oil as medicine and to make canoes water-proof. During the Revolutionary War, Native Americans taught George Washingtons troops how to treat frostbite with oil. As our country grew, the demand for oil continued to increase as a fuel for lamps. Petroleum oil began to replace whale oil in lamps because the price for whale oil was very high. During this time, most petroleum oil came from distilling coal into a liquid or by skimming it off of lakes just as the Native Americans did. Then on August 27, 1859, Edwin L. Drake (the man standing on the right in the black and white picture to the right), struck liquid oil at his well near Titusville, Pennsylvania. He found oil under ground and a way that could pump it to the surface. The well pumped the oil into barrels made out of wood. This method of drilling for oil is still being used today all over the world in areas where oil can be found below the surface. Oil and natural gas are found under ground between folds of rock and in areas of rock that are porous and contain the oils within the rock itself. The folds of rock were formed as the earth shifts and moves. Its similar to how a small, throw carpet will bunch up in places on the floor. To find oil and natural gas, companies drill through the earth to the deposits deep below the surface. The oil and natural gas are then pumped from below the ground by oil rigs (like in the picture). They then usually travel through pipelines or by ship. Oil is found in 18 of the 58 counties in California. Kern County, the County where Bakersfield is found, is one of the largest oil production places in the country. But we only get one-half of our oil from California wells. The rest comes from Alaska, and an increasing amount comes from other countries. In the entire U.S., more than 50 percent of all the oil we use comes from outside the countrymost of it from the Middle East. Oil is brought to California by large tanker ships. The petroleum or crude oil must be changed or refined into other products before it can be used. Refineries: Oil is stored in large tanks until it is sent to various places to be used. At oil refineries, crude oil is split into various types of products by heating the thick black oil. Oil is made into many different products fertilizers for farms, the clothes you wear, the toothbrush you use, the plastic bottle that holds your milk, the plastic pen that you write with. They all came from oil. There are thousands of other products that come from oil. Almost all plastic comes originally from oil. Can you think of some other things made from oil? The products include gasoline, diesel fuel, aviation or jet fuel, home heating oil, oil for ships and oil to burn in power plants to make electricity. Heres what a barrel of crude oil can make. In California, 74 percent of our oil is used for transportation cars, planes, trucks, buses and motorcycles. Well learn more about transportation energy in Chapter 18. Natural Gas: Sometime between 6,000 to 2,000 years BCE (Before the Common Era), the first discoveries of natural gas seeps were made in Iran. Many early writers described the natural petroleum seeps in the Middle East, especially in the Baku region of what is now Azerbaijan. The gas seeps, probably first ignited by lightning, provided the fuel for the eternal fires of the fire-worshiping religion of the ancient Persians. Natural gas is lighter than air. Natural gas is mostly made up of a gas called methane. Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Its chemical formula is CH4 one atom of carbon along with four atoms hydrogen. This gas is highly flammable. Natural gas is usually found near petroleum underground. It is pumped from below ground and travels in pipelines to storage areas. The next chapter looks at that pipeline system. Natural gas usually has no odor and you cant see it. Before it is sent to the pipelines and storage tanks, it is mixed with a chemical that gives a strong odor. The odor smells almost like rotten eggs. The odor makes it easy to smell if there is a leak. Energy Safety Note! If you smell that rotten egg smell in your house, tell your folks and get out of the house quickly. Dont turn on any lights or other electrical devices. A spark from a light switch can ignite the gas very easily. Go to a neighbors house and call 9-1-1 for emergency help. Saving Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels take millions of years to make. We are using up the fuels that were made more than 300 million years ago before the time of the dinosaurs. Once they are gone they are gone. So, its best to not waste fossil fuels. They are not renewable; they cant really be made again. We can save fossil fuels by conserving energy. Natural Gas Distribution System: We learned in Chapter 8 that natural gas is a fossil fuel. It is a gaseous molecule thats made up of two atoms one carbon atom combined with four hydrogen atom. Its chemical formula is CH4. The picture on the right is a model of what the molecule could look like. Dont confuse natural gas with gasoline, which we call gas for short. Like oil, natural gas is found under ground and under the ocean floor. Wells are drilled to tap into natural gas reservoirs just like drilling for oil. Once a drill has hit an area that contains natural gas, it can be brought to the surface through pipes. The natural gas has to get from the wells to us. To do that, there is a huge network of pipelines that brings natural gas from the gas fields to us. Some of these pipes are two feet wide. Natural gas is sent in larger pipelines to power plants to make electricity or to factories because they use lots of gas. Bakeries use natural gas to heat ovens to bake bread, pies, pastries and cookies. Other businesses use natural gas for heating their buildings or heating water. From larger pipelines, the gas goes through smaller and smaller pipes to your neighborhood. In businesses and in your home, the natural gas must first pass through a meter, which measures the amount of fuel going into the building. A gas company worker reads the meter and the company will charge you for the amount of natural gas you used. In some homes, natural gas is used for cooking, heating water and heating the house in a furnace. In rural areas, where there are no natural gas pipelines, propane (another form of gas thats often made when oil is refined) or bottled gas is used instead of natural gas. Propane is also called LPG, or liquefied petroleum gas, is made up of methane and a mixture with other gases like butane. Propane turns to a liquid when it is placed under slight pressure. For regular natural gas to turn into a liquid, it has to be made very, very cold. Cars and trucks can also use natural gas as a transportation fuel, but they must carry special cylinder-like tanks to hold the fuel. When natural gas is burned to make heat or burned in a cars engine, it burns very cleanly. When you combine natural gas with oxygen (the process of combustion), you produce carbon dioxide and water vapor; plus the energy thats released in heat and light. Some impurities are contained in all natural gas. These include sulphur and butane and other chemicals. When burned, those impurities can create air pollution. The amount of pollution from natural gas is less than burning a more complex fuel like gasoline. Natural gas-powered cars are more than 90 percent cleaner than a gasoline-powered car. Thats why many people feel natural gas would be a good fuel for cars because it burns cleanly. Biomass Energy: Biomass is matter usually thought of as garbage. Some of it is just stuff lying around dead trees, tree branches, yard clippings, left-over crops, wood chips (like in the picture to the right), and bark and sawdust from lumber mills. It can even include used tires and livestock manure. Your trash, paper products that cant be recycled into other paper products, and other household waste are normally sent to the dump. Your trash contains some types of biomass that can be reused. Recycling biomass for fuel and other uses cuts down on the need for landfills to hold garbage. This stuff nobody seems to want can be used to produce electricity, heat, compost material or fuels. Composting material is decayed plant or food products mixed together in a compost pile and spread to help plants grow. California produces more than 60 million bone dry tons of biomass each year. Of this total, five million bone dry tons is now burned to make electricity. This is biomass from lumber mill wastes, urban wood waste, forest and agricultural residues and other feed stocks. If all of it was used, the 60 million tons of biomass in California could make close to 2,000 megawatts of electricity for Californias growing population and economy. Thats enough energy to make electricity for about two million homes! How biomass works is very simple. The waste wood, tree branches and other scraps are gathered together in big trucks. The trucks bring the waste from factories and from farms to a biomass power plant. Here the biomass is dumped into huge hoppers. This is then fed into a furnace where it is burned. The heat is used to boil water in the boiler, and the energy in the steam is used to turn turbines and generators . Biomass can also be tapped right at the landfill with burning waster products. When garbage decomposes, it gives off methane gas. Youll remember in chapters 8 and 9 that natural gas is made up of methane. Pipelines are put into the landfills and the methane gas can be collected. It is then used in power plants to make electricity. This type of biomass is called landfill gas. A similar thing can be done at animal feed lots. In places where lots of animals are raised, the animals like cattle, cows and even chickens produce manure. When manure decomposes, it also gives off methane gas similar to garbage. This gas can be burned right at the farm to make energy to run the farm. Using biomass can help reduce global warming compared to a fossil fuel-powered plant. Plants use and store carbon dioxide (CO2) when they grow. CO2 stored in the plant is released when th

Critical Response to the Turn of the Screw Essay -- Henry James

Henry James’ novella the Turn of the Screw is a highly ambiguous piece of fiction. Set in Edwardian England, a very naà ¯ve woman is left in charge of two young children. The beautiful Bly however appears to be hiding a few dark secrets. The appearance of two ghosts plays on the governess’ mind, she comes to the conclusion the children are in danger and being possessed by these two horrors. Throughout the novella James successfully creates a mystical atmosphere, his ambiguous style forces us to think twice about what is written and decide for ourselves whether or not this is purely a ghost story or something far more sinister. However after several reads and a close look behind the words, it becomes clear that the ‘ghosts’ that haunt the house of Bly are nothing more than hallucinations and may be the result of a serious case of sexual repression in the governess. The governess is a hopeless romantic, that becomes clear at the very beginning. The daughter of a poor parishioner, the governess has had a very sheltered life, making her into quite a naà ¯ve woman, but no doubt very curious. The governess had only once had a position involving children before she accepted the position at Bly. She was quite nervous and unsure in regards to her own abilities. Yet she took the job. Why? She believed the employer to be the most handsome of men, with a most kind and generous nature. This opinion was formed over one very short meeting. As the governess arrives at Bly she mentions â€Å"I had expected something quite dull and dreary, so this place was a wonderful surprise. I wondered why he (employer) had failed to mention it†. The governess is also quick to tell the housekeeper Mrs Grose â€Å"I am carried away quite easily. I was carried away in Londo... ...ce was close and he let me kiss it† and her description of Miles saying â€Å"oh you know what a boy wants† are all unnecessary. The plot of the ghosts corrupting the children is what the governess’ tales is supposed to be about, just a ghost story. So adding in constant little sentences like these makes us question whether this is really a ghost story at all, or something more vindictive. The ambiguity of this novella shows that the ghosts cannot possibly be real and are a mere figure of the governess’ imagination. Her romantic, whimsical state of mind, strange and elaborate use of words and clearly shown indecency with Miles gives sufficient evidence to say she was suffering a severe case of sexual repression, brought on by her sheltered childhood and lonely position in society. However these circumstances are no excuse for the damage she caused those poor children.

Rationale Statement

This 2 hour online workshop Is an Indication of this standard because of the freeloading and research that went Into Its creation. I Incorporated what I knew of the learners into the initial design phases of the module. Taking multiple learning styles and multiple intelligences into consideration helped me to create targeted activities, assignments, and resources to reach a broader pool of participants. After all, â€Å"to teach effectively, you've got to know how people learn and in particular you've got to know how they think. † (Ramrod, 2010) Interestingly enough, the topic of the workshop Is differentiation.As result, the module Itself models the topic by providing lessons and assessments that incorporate differentiation in its design. Images, videos, text, links, and interactive activities make up the bulk of the content, and each tab brings in different strategies to reach different learners. Standard. The Instructional materials for this website Indicate a wide variety of modalities. I have shot and embedded videos of subject matter experts, Included Interactive multiple choice quizzes, as well as developed discussion threads to allow participants o work together.Using what I know of the skills highlighted by the Partnership for 21st Century Literates, I incorporated assessments that ask learners to collaborate, to analyze readings and photos, and to synthesize their findings into writing. These skills are ones teachers need to use, sure. However, since the focus of the workshop Is to help teachers teach students, I believe It is vital for any professional development to model these skills as well and ask teachers to interact with the skills they will also expect their own students to utilize. Standard.I believe It Is very important to allow learners flexibility in this workshop's Implementation. Knowing the schedule of the target audience, the secondary teacher, I decided that the workshop should be self-paced and accomplished over a short window of time. Over a two-week period, learners have the chance to log in and work to chip away at the tabs at their convenience. Each tab focuses on different topics centered on differentiation and can be explored in any order. However, as self-paced as it is, there are still patterns and rhythms worked into the workshop. Resources, visuals, informal assessment. Resources, visuals, Informal assessment.The predictable pattern Is meant to help the comfort level of learners. â€Å"Students find that a†¦ Rhythm for an online course provides similar benefits in keeping learners on track†¦ † (Botcher & Conrad, 2010. ) By making this decision of flexible learning right off the bat, I was able to then back plan what support I needed to develop and provide in order to ensure a smooth experience for the learners each time they log in. Throughout my program, I became a greater fan of Haiku as a Learning Management System. Haiku is amazingly user-friendly, and still provides the le arners and the signers access to a wide variety of tools.They don't water down the possibilities. The resources are housed easily using this virtual classroom. The discussions are easily encouraged. Submission methods are obvious and clear. Haiku permits an easy pathway to communicate with learners. Nevertheless, the pool of learners that piloted the workshop varied in levels of tech users. To address this, I developed a series of scaffolds to help participants regardless of their tech level. For instance, despite the ease of Haiku, I still also provided a Screenplay that allowed me to introduce both savvy and tentative learners to the ALMS.It was my first time using this kind of technology, and having gone through the process, I have discovered how invaluable it is. I plan to include a Screenplay for any future project as an instructional designer as well as a classroom teacher. Standard 5: EVALUATIONS]O Regarding learner assessment and evaluation, the workshop clearly meets this s tandard because of the elements included in its virtual walls. It includes formative, informal assessments in the form of short writings based on photograph analysis ND asking learners to synthesize concepts into discussion threads.It also incorporates more formal summarize assessments in the form of an online multiple- choice survey. Regarding my own evaluative process, I ensured that the assessments aligned to the initial objectives. â€Å"The test [measures] what it's supposed to measure† (Laureate, 2012. ) A simple concept, but one that is critical in the success of creating a training module. In addition, the course evaluation survey incorporates both quantitative data and subjective opinion, the results of which I could reflect on to aid in my evasions as well as my own growth as an instructional designer.

History of Corrections Essay

The corrections system in America began mostly with the arrival of William Penn and his â€Å"Great Law.† This was back in 1682; the â€Å"Great Law† was based on humane principals and also focused on hard labor as a punishment. The corrections system really began to take hold in North America in the late 1700’s with the idea’s and philosophy of Beccaria, Bentham, and Howard. These philosophies were based on the thought that prisoners could be treated and reformed back into society. This hard labor was used as an alternative to other cruel forms of punishments that were used in earlier times such as physical abuse or even brutal death. In 1790 came the birth of the Penitentiary in Philadelphia. The penitentiary was different than other systems in that it isolated prisoners, â€Å" †¦isolated from the bad influences of society and one from another so that, while engaged in productive labor, they could reflect on their past miss-deeds†¦and be reformed,† (Clear, Cole, Reisig). The American penitentiary and its new concept was observed and adopted by other foreign countries. The Pennsylvania system of the penitentiary was based on inmate isolation so that they could ponder their past behavioral choices. In this system the inmates were confined to labor on their own. In New York they had a different system, known as the Auburn system. This system differed from the Pennsylvania system because inmates would come together during the day to do their work and labor but were otherwise held in isolation. In the early 1900’s a group of progressives sought to reform the ways of the corrections system. Their ideas about the cause of crime were more centered around the social, economic, and psychological pressures on people. The progressives brought up programs that were discussed in 1870 at the Cincinnati meeting. These programs included probation, parole, and other indeterminate sentences that are still used in corrections today. As we can see the penitentiary system has changed over the years. As we advance and learn more as a society, we are able to fine tune these programs for all parties involved. Overall, the key point of all of these systems and the ultimate goal is public safety. Keeping our people safe and moving in a peaceful direction is essential to our society. Goals of Corrections The corrections system in the U.S. has five main goals when dealing with criminal sanctions. Originally the system had four main goals: Retribution, Deterrence, Incapacitation, and Rehabilitation. Later on there was much focus placed on a fifth goal: Restorative and Community Justice. These goals are designed to be effective toward different types of criminals and a combination may be used in many cases. Retribution, also known as Deserved Punishment, is much like the old saying â€Å"an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth†(Clear, Cole, Reisig). Basically this is a punishment where the severity of the sentence should fit the severity of the crime. If a criminal has done wrong to someone then they deserve to feel that same wrong doing. There are two types of Deterrence used in corrections. The first is just a general deterrence, which is a method of using punishments and making them visible to the public with the goal of deterring others in the public from wanting to commit crime. Public hangings were once used as this type of deterrence. The other type is directed toward the criminal in hopes that they will not repeat crimes in the future. The punishment is to be severe enough to discourage any future criminal activity. This type is called Specific Deterrence. â€Å"Deterrence theory contends that if the public knows the consequences of deviance, many individuals will not commit a crime† (Long). Incapacitation is typically understood as the detainment of a criminal. The goal of incapacitation is to keep criminals from being able to commit further crimes. There are several different ways of using incapacitation. Reducing the movement and involvement of a criminal in society will hopefully reduce crime on the streets. â€Å"†¦ incapacitation focuses on the characteristics of the offenders instead of the characteristics of the offenses†(Clear, Cole, Reisig). Rehabilitation is more of a therapeutic method to help the criminal ditch crime and become a constructive member in society. â€Å"Rehabilitation involves teaching inmates silks and trades that will, hopefully, give them a chance to become law-abiding citizens once they are released from prison† (Long). This method is looked at as more of a treatment than a punishment, to guide the criminal to make better choices and live a better life. Restorative or Community Justice is a fairly new concept. It is aimed more at repairing damages caused by the crime to the victim(s) and the community involved. In this method the victim lays out conditions for the offender and what is necessary to help repair any losses. The community provides assistance to help restore the offender to the community. Some say that this method can be dangerous and bypasses certain safeguards. The goals of corrections are solid efforts to reduce crime. There are many improvements that could be made. As we learn and test these methods, they need to be fine tuned and have the bugs worked out. If something isn’t working in the appropriate way it needs to be addressed and refocused. I think that many of these goals will become weak and maybe overlooked with the new AB 109 bill and other reforms currently taking place in California Corrections. Prison Sanctions There are three types of sentencing structures used in the corrections system. Each type leaves some discretion for the judge and varies on the goals for the criminal. The different methods used are called: indeterminate sentences, determinate sentences, and mandatory sentences. Indeterminate sentences go in line with the idea of rehabilitation. These sentences usually have a minimum and a maximum term. It is a range and the courts use this range to determine parole and it is somewhat based on the amount of time given for a treatment program. The purpose behind this form of sentencing is incapacitation, deterrence and rehabilitation. Determinate sentencing is quite the opposite from indeterminate, hence the name. This sentencing structure follows the concept of retribution mainly. Retribution is a deserved punishment, so basically the offender is given a length of sentence based on the crime that was committed. It is a fixed sentence that goes with the specific crime committed. After the offender has served his time he is then released and is free to go without any parole or program ties. The third sentencing structure is mandatory sentencing. This structure is based on the crime committed. It has a minimum time period attached to certain crimes that the government deems fit. This type of sentencing does not take into account the different circumstances of the crime but only looks at the crime itself. â€Å"The ‘three strikes and you’re out’ laws, now adopted by several states and the federal government, provide one example of mandatory sentencing†(Clear, Cole, Reisig). The purpose behind these sentences is incapacitation and deterrence. The sentencing structures are all a bit different. I am not sure if I can say for sure that I agree with any one more than another. I think the best way may be a good mix between indeterminate and mandatory. I do agree with the idea of the rehabilitation concept to an extent but the severity of some crimes should absolutely be accompanied with a minimum period to ensure some justice. Probation, Parole, and Intermediate Sanctions Probation, Parole, and Intermediate sanctions all seem to stem from similar concepts and ideas. Each of these forms of punishment seems to be a way of easing the harsh criminal laws for certain offenders in some cases. They were all developed in order to provide different means to support the offenders’ restoration in society. Probation, which began with John Augustus in 1841, allows the offender to serve out a punishment in the community while under supervision rather than be sent to prison. John Augustus is known as the first probation officer. He began by helping people with bail back in Boston in the 1830s. It was introduced as a way to â€Å"†¦ alleviate the harshness of the criminal law† (Clear, Cole, Reisig). It is now a form of sentencing that includes investigation and supervision and is used in every state today. Captain Alexander Maconochie, who I believe is actually an ancestor of mine but will need to do more research, created a system back in the mid 1800s that would reward prisoners based on their good behavior. He developed stages that prisoners could go through based on their conduct that were like steps to freedom. He is the founder of the concept behind what we call parole today. His staged system was to gauge the offenders willingness to accept society’s rules much like parole is supervision back into society with a set of rules. This system is also a way to ease the intensity of criminal law for those with good conduct. Intermediate Sanctions came about a bit later but for very similar reasons. Some expressed these reasons as: â€Å"†¦ imprisonment is too restrictive for many offenders, traditional probation does not work with most offenders, and justice is well served by having options in between† (Clear, Cole, Reisig). These were other ways of softening the criminal laws for offenders based on certain circumstances. These intermediate sanctions were aimed at lower risk offenders as a type of rehabilitation effort. The different intermediate sanctions include programs such as: community service, restitution, home confinement, boot camp, and more. I would have to agree with the basis of all three of these programs. I think that there are many offenders that would fare well in these types of sentences. However, these are more for the lower risk type offenders that have shown good conduct and that may have a chance in becoming a functioning part of society. There are many other higher risk offenders that do not deserve the option of these sanctions. It is better for the safety of the public that these sentences are highly monitored and that the offenders are ready to be placed back in society.